WHAT IS TERRORISM
TERRORISM: A CRIMINOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Criminologically, TERRORISM is a POLITICAL CRIME whose act is carried with the intent to disrupt and change the government and not be merely a common-law crime committed for greed and egotism.
Because of its complexity, an all-encompassing definition of terrorism is difficult to formulate, although most experts agree that it generally involves the illegal use of force against innocent people to achieve political objectives.
The US State Department defines TERRORISM as premeditated, politically motivated, violence perpetrated against noncombatants targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.
The Philippines through its Congress passed into law just last year Republic 11479 and define terrorism as:
This is a very controversial law and in fact, its substance is questioned to this date at the Supreme Court because it also endangers the democratic ideals of the country. Based on the given definition, terrorism are:
ACTS THAT ENDANGER A PERSON’S LIFE: (Sec 4, Par. a)
ACTS THAT DESTROY PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FACILITIES (Sec. 4, Par. b)
ACTS DAMAGING CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE (Sec 4, Par. c)
USE OF DANGEROUS WEAPONS AND EXPLOSIVES (Sec. 4, Par. d)
CAUSING FIRES, FLOODS, EXPLOSIONS TO INTIMIDATE THE PUBLIC (Sec. 4, Par. e)
WANT TO READ MORE ABOUT RA 11479, CLICK HERE, to download PDF.
BRIEF HISTORY OF TERRORISM
The word TERROR comes from the Latin word “terrere”, meaning to frighten. Terrorist intends to instill fear into the population at large. In their endeavor to create terroristic acts, many are affected, because sometimes the calculated objected exceeds. It involves not only the destruction of life but even property. TERRORISM is the calculated use of violence as fear, intimidation, or coercion, or the threat of such violence to attain goals that are political, religious, and ideological in nature. It is declared a criminal act that is often symbolic in nature and intended to influence an audience beyond the immediate victims.
Acts of terrorism have been known throughout history. The assassination of Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BCE is considered an act of terrorism. Terrorism became widespread at the end of the Middle Ages when political leaders were frequently subject to assassination by their enemies (Siegel 2015).
Religious Roots
The first terrorist activities were committed by members of minority religious groups who engaged in violence to:
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- gain the right to practice their own form of religion;
- establish the supremacy of their own religion over others; or
- meet the requirements of the bloodthirsty gods they worshipped.
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In some instances, a conquered people used force and violence to maintain their right to worship in their own faith. These roots continue to looms as in the case of JIHAD and MUJAHIDEEN.
BEFORE THE REIGN OF TERROR
Terrorists started in the 11th Century under the direction of Hassam-I Sabbah who is a Muslim and their group came to be known as the assassin. They belong to a small fundamentalist religious sect engaged in murder for political reasons. They were also later known as Fedai or Fedayeen, a man of faith and sacrifice. They were trained for a suicide mission, often paid in advance to be left for their family and they should be successful in killing their target.
PURPOSE OF TERRORISM
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- Political
- Religious
- Ideological
- Criminal
- Economic
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Political Roots
When rulers had absolute power, terrorist acts were viewed as one of the only means of gaining political rights. At times European states encouraged terrorist acts against their enemies. In the sixteenth century Queen Elizabeth I empowered her naval leaders, including famed captains John Hawkins and Francis Drake, to attack the Spanish fleet and take prizes.
These privateers would have been considered pirates had they not operated with government approval. American privateers attacked the British during the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 and were considered heroes for their actions against the English navy.
THE REIGN OF TERROR
The term terrorist first became popular during the French Revolution. The use of the word terrorism began in 1793 in reference to the Reign of Terror initiated by the revolutionary government during which agents of the Committee of Public Safety and the National Convention were referred to as terrorists. In response, royalists and opponents of the Revolution employed terrorist tactics in resistance to the Revolutionists.
TERRORISM DURING WORLD WAR 1
In the hundred years following the French Revolution, terrorism continued to be a political tool around the world. Terrorist acts became the preferred method of political action for national groups in the early years of the twentieth century.
In June 1914, a Serbian-nationalist terrorist group called the Black Hand sent groups to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand which started World War 1. (Below are the famous Black Hand members)
Between the World Wars, right-wing terrorism existed in Germany, Spain, and Italy. One source of tension, according to author Michael Kellogg, was the virulently anti-Communist exiles that fled Russia after the 1917 Revolution (called White Russians) and took up residence in Germany and other Western nations.
TERRORISM DURING WORLD WAR 2
During World War II, resistance to the occupying German troops was common throughout Europe. The Germans considered the resistors to be terrorists, but the rest of the world considers them heroes. Meanwhile, in Palestine, Jewish terrorist groups—the Haganah, Irgun, and Stern Gang, whose leaders included Menachem Begin, who later became Israel’s prime minister—waged war against the British to force them to allow Jewish survivors of the Holocaust to settle in their traditional homeland.
Today, of course, many of these alleged terrorists are considered freedom fighters who laid down their lives for a just cause.
POST WORLD WAR TERRORISM
Since the end of World War II, terrorism has accelerated its development into a major component of contemporary conflict. Primarily in use immediately after the war as a subordinate element of anti-colonial insurgencies, it expanded beyond that role. In the service of various ideologies and aspirations, terrorism sometimes supplanted other forms of the conflict completely.
It became a far-reaching weapon capable of effects no less global than the intercontinental bomber or missile. It has also proven to be a significant tool of diplomacy and international power for states inclined to use it.
CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF TERRORISM
Today the term terrorism encompasses many different behaviors and goals. Some of the more common forms are briefly described below:
| Revolutionary terrorists |
Use violence to frighten those in power and their supporters in order to replace government with a regime that holds acceptable political or religious views. |
| Political terrorists |
Political terrorism is directed at people or groups who oppose the terrorists’ political ideology or whom the terrorists define as “outsiders” who must be destroyed. |
| Eco-terrorism |
Political terror groups involved in violent actions to protect the environment. |
| Nationalist terrorism |
Groups whose actions promote the interests of a minority ethnic or religious group that has been persecuted under majority rule and/or wishes to carve out its own independent homeland. |
| Retributive terrorism |
Groups that use violence as a method of influence, persuasion, or intimidation in order to achieve a particular aim or objective. |
| State-sponsored terrorism |
Carried out by a repressive government regime in order to force its citizens into obedience, oppress minorities, and stifle political dissent. |
| Criminal terrorism |
Terrorist groups that become involved in common-law crimes such as drug dealing and kidnapping, even selling nuclear materials. |
RADICALIZATION: THE GATEWAY TO TERRORISM
Radicalization is a process by which people increasingly adopt more extreme attitudes and behavior that might involve approval of the use of violence by others or displaying this violence themselves to stimulate fear in the general population in an attempt to instigate changes in society.
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“Process that involves the adoption of beliefs and attitudes that are in opposition to the mainstream status quo and dominant sociopolitical discourses.“
NARRATIVES OF THE RADICALIZATION
Narratives can be used by extremist groups to influence susceptible individuals in a radical direction and attract support. By projecting narratives via social media, extremists may encourage support for their ideology which involves the following:
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- a clear us vs. them distinction, accompanied by a perceived superiority of their own group (the in-group) and a clearly inferior and de-humanized perception of the enemy (the out-group);
- a strong perception of injustice or grievances: the in-group is threatened by the out-group;
- a lack of trust in current institutions (politics, justice system) to address their grievances;
- a perceived need to use violence to achieve societal and/or political changes (including the belief that such violence will be effective)
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THE EFFECT OF RADICALIZATION
In and of itself, adopting radical beliefs or attitudes is not necessarily problematic or negative.
“In the course of history, “radicals” have fought for and changed a lot of things that are now considered as normal and necessary”. Think for example of Nelson Mandela or Martin Luther King who were at one time considered radical by many as they opposed prevailing views in society. In other words, to become radical thinkers, does not always mean “TERRORISM”.
However, radicalization becomes a concern when it leads to beliefs and attitudes that sanction legitimize and compel violence as a means to achieve social change.
It’s all about violent radicalization or radicalization into extremism, a process whereby radical views develop into “a willingness to directly support or engage in violent acts”. An important distinction that follows from this is that between radicalism and extremism. The most important difference is that the latter accept to exercise violence as a legitimate means to achieve particular goals.
For the past few years, the Philippines suffers radicalization of some youth and this happens in the southern part of the country. In the past, they believe that only VULNERABLE (like those who are neglected children and victims of social justice) are easily recruited for terroristic activity, it’s sad to learn that even ordinary children including that those who are non-Islamic believers are lured into radicalization and violent extremism. This is because of “MONETARY CONSIDERATION” aside from belief and pride, and for a jihadist a “holy obligation”. After Marawi Siege, orphaned children (anak iloh) not only jihadist but ordinary children for as far as 5 and 6 years old were recruited to join the terror group, a sad state for not saving these young people of becoming a terrorist, the appeal to them are simple, that they were “victim of injustice” and neglect of the government.
Criminologically, if we study very well the root cause of all of these, we can probably contribute to the solution of the problem. The question of many sociologists is whether it thrives within the domain of criminological science.
DO TERRORISM & VIOLENT EXTREMISM CRIMINOLOGY DOMAIN
As such, criminologists have rarely considered Violent Extremism within the broader realm of criminal offenders due to the presence of ideological motivations, while terrorism scholars routinely ignore the potential for utilizing a criminological perspective to study this type of violence (Mullins 2009; Rice 2009).
Clarke and Newman (2006) argue that terrorism is similar to more ordinary crime, other prominent scholars, such as Hirschi and Gottfredson (2001:94), suggest criminological theory is poorly suited to explain this type of violence because terrorism ‘‘reflect(s) commitment to a political cause’’ (see also Silke 2008).
In contrast, other scholars have recently explored the applicability of using criminological theories to help explain violent extremism vis-à-vis subcultural theory, rational choice, displacement and diffusion, social disorganization, routine activities, and deterrence theory. Despite advances, however, the use of criminology to study violent extremism remains substantially underdeveloped.
Even in the Philippines, we don’t have much involvement in discovering the inclination of so many radicalized people and extremists, whether they are jihadist, leftist, or rightist.
WE HOPE TO SEE MORE CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON THIS MATTER IN THE FUTURE!
Be familiar also with the following:
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- Jihad is an Arabic word that literally means striving or struggling, especially with a praiseworthy aim; a struggle or fight against the enemies of Islam. (ACT)
- Mujahedeen are guerrilla fighters in Islamic countries, especially those who are fighting against non-Muslim forces. (PERSON)
- Al-Qaeda (also al-Qaida or al-Qa’ida or al-Qa’idah) (Arabic: القاعدة al-qāʕida, translation: (The Base) is an international alliance of militant Sunni jihadist organizations. Its roots can be traced back to Osama bin Laden and others around the time of the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989. Al-Qaeda’s objectives include the elimination of foreign influence in Muslim countries, elimination of Israel, and the creation of a new Islamic caliphate.
- Jemaah Islamiya – Roots in Daru Islam: a violent radical movement that advocated the establishment of Islamic law in Indonesia and renounced violence in the early years and shifted tactics in the late 1990s by links with Al Qaeda. Jemaah Islamiya means:
- Literally, Islamic Organization
- A militant Islamist group in Southeast Asia
- Purpose: Pan-Islamic State in Southeast Asia
- Notorious for Bali, Indonesia bombing in 2002
- The Abu Sayyaf – (Arabic: جماعة أبو سياف; Jamāyeh Abū Sayyāf; ASG), also known as al-Harakat al-Islamiyya is one of several militant Islamist separatist groups based in and around the southern islands of the Philippines, in Bangsamoro (Jolo, Basilan, and Mindanao) where for almost 30 years various groups have been engaged in an insurgency for an Islamic state, independent of the predominantly Christian Philippines. The name of the group is derived from the Arabic ابو, Abu (“father of”) and Sayyaf (“Swordsmith [1]“). Literally, Abu Sayyaf is understood to be:
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- Literally means BEARER OF THE SWORD.
- A Militant Islamic Terror group in Southeast Asia
- Believe to be an armed group of MILF before (but now working with BIFF or Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighter)
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- The Maute Group (brothers) are a former member of the MILF and established the Dawlah Islamiya in Lanao Del Sur that later wiped out by the government forces and triggered the Marawi Siege. Maute was a radical Islamist and founded the Islamic State of Lanao (IS Ranao). You can also read literature about what is ISIS/ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria/Levant) on the net.
- The New People’s Army. The New People’s Army (Filipino: Bagong Hukbong Bayan), abbreviated NPA or BHB, is the armed wing of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), based primarily in the Philippine countryside. It acts as the CPP’s principal organization, aiming to consolidate political power from what it sees as the present “bourgeois reactionary puppet government” and to aid in the “people’s democratic revolution”. Founded on March 29, 1969, by the collaboration of Jose Maria Sison and former members of the Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan led by Bernabe Buscayno, the NPA has since waged a guerrilla war based on the Maoist strategy of protracted people’s war. The NPA is one of the key figures in the ongoing Communist rebellion in the Philippines, the longest ongoing conflict in the country. The NPA operates in the Philippine countryside, where the CPP alleges it has established itself in 73 out of the country’s 81 provinces, across over 110 guerrilla fronts. In guerrilla zones where the NPA has entrenched itself, the CPP–NPA has established a People’s Democratic Government (Gobyernong Bayan), which operates independently of the Philippine government. Within these zones, income taxes that would nominally go to the government treasury instead go to the NPA, which they use to fund community services. The NPA was declared “TERRORIST” by the Philippine Government on December 9, 2020.
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END OF OUR MODULE AND FINALLY END OF THE CLASS UNDER THE SUBJECT HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND CRISIS MANAGEMENT
PREPARE FOR YOUR FINAL EXAM COVERING ALSO THE SEXUAL OFFENSE, CRISIS MANAGEMENT, AND TERRORISM
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