The Sociological and Other Theory

THE SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

---

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES are also known as SOCIAL-STRUCTURAL APPROACHES. Sociological theories place emphasis on the structure of society on the relationship between the social institutions, and on the types of behavior, which tend to characterize groups of people. In contrast to more individualized biological and psychological theories, which have what is called “micro” focus, sociological approaches utilize a “macro” perspective – stressing behavioral tendencies for group members rather than attempting to predict the behavior of specific individuals.

1. ADOLPHE QUETELET (1796 – 1874).    

The foundation of Sociological Criminology can be traced to the works of pioneering sociologist Quetelet who instigated the use of data and statistics in performing criminological research. He is a Belgian mathematician who began the CARTOGRAPHIC SCHOOL CRIMINOLOGY. This school is also called the ECOLOGICAL SCHOOL developed in Europe in the early 19^th Essentially this school focuses on the relationship of crime to the environment where it existed. His works made him regarded as the first SOCIAL CRIMINOLOGIST whose view was that “society prepares the crime and the guilty is only the instrument by which it is accomplished”.

Quetelet uncovered evidence that season, climate, population composition, and poverty have a great influence on criminality aside from the age and sex of an individual. More specific findings show that crime rates were greatest in summer, southern areas, among the heterogeneous population,s and among the poor and uneducated. Quetelet identified many of the relationships between crime and social phenomena that still serve as a variable and basis for criminology researches today.

2. ANDRE-MICHEL GUERRY (1802-1866)

(French whose writings appear with the writings of geographer Adriano Balbi in Essai sur la Statisque Morale de la France in 1829) was considered by many to be the “first work in scientific Criminology.” Guerry uses charts, tables, and maps in his study and looking at age, sex, and education as variables.

He also classified crimes as those against property and those against persons. His purpose seemed to be to found those factors that PREDISPOSE one to criminal behavior rather than those factors that cause the behavior. On the result of his study, he found out that the IMPORTANT VARIABLE SEEMED TO BE THE OPPORTUNITY TO COMMIT CRIME. He rejected the simplistic explanation that increases in population density caused an increase in crime.

3. CARL MARX (1818-1883)

The View on ECONOMIC DETERMINISM (other books call it RADICAL THEORY) was set forth by Carl Marx who advocated that private ownership of property results in poverty which distinguishes those who own the means of production from those whom they exploit for economic benefit. The latter turn to crime as a result of this poverty.

His very simple explanation of the crime causation is that exploitation of the working class (PROLETARIAT) by the ruling class or capitalist (BOURGEOISIE) would eventually lead to a CLASS CONFLICT. The Deterministic approach of Marx may be contrasted to the FACILITATING approach of Frank Tannenbaum and William Bonger. According to Tannenbaum argued that criminals are as much a part of the community as other professions and that the community must provide a facilitating environment for their behavior to exist.

He further states that changing the amount of crime in the community would mean changing also the community. The criminal according to him is not a symptom rather he is a product of the community. The community gives the criminal his or her methods as well as ideals and goals to become a criminal. His famous idea was “CAPITALISM & COMMUNISM”.

4. WILLIAM ADRIAN BONGER (1876 – 1940)

He bases his findings on the life of primitive people who according to him has ALTRUISTIC CHARACTER. These altruistic ways of life are based on mutual help. He stated that when there is abundance, all are fed; when food is scarce, all are hungry.

Finally, a person is subordinate to nature and becomes materialistic and selfish. They are interested only in producing for themselves, especially in producing a surplus, which can be exchanged for profit. He further explains that capitalism breeds social irresponsibility and leads to crime. For example, the economy prevents some from marrying when they desire; that leads to rape, illegitimacy, and infanticide. Bonger did not argue that capitalism creates an egoistic tendency that force people to become criminal, but he did say that it makes them more capable of becoming a criminal.

5. EMILE DURKHEIM (1858 – 1917)

Durkheim saw crime as the product of the very existence of norms. The concept of “wrong” is necessary to give meaning to “right”. According to him, even a community of Saints will create sinners. According to him, crime is also functional. It is a necessary prerequisite for social change. It is necessary for the collective sentiment to be flexible enough to permit a positive deviation, it must also permit negative deviation. If no deviation is permitted society becomes stagnant.

In 1893 Durkheim published “The Division of Labour in Society” and introduced his version of the concept of ANOMIE, which derived from a Greek (other book says French) word meaning “LAWLESSNESS”. Durkheim was not the first who use the term; nor did he develop the concept as extensively as in Merton an American sociologist, but rather he was responsible for making the concept an integral part of sociology and, to some extent criminology.

6. ROBERT K. MERTON (1910-2003)

He contended that the cause of crime is ANOMIE. But unlike Durkheim Merton had introduced a modification on the theory on anomie. ANOMIE came to mean a disjunction between socially approved means to success and legitimate goals. Merton maintained that legitimate goals involving such things as wealth, status, and personal happiness were generally defined as desirable for anyone.

However, the widely accepted means to attain this goal are education, hard work, financial savings, etc., which other individuals do not possess. It is through this that others may resort to criminality in order to attain legitimate goals.

7. GABRIEL TARDE (1843-1904)

THEORY ON IMITATION. Tarde’s social-process theory of criminal behavior is reflected in his belief that all of the “important acts of social life are carried out under the domination of example. He formulated the three LAW ON IMITATION:

1. 1. Men imitate one another in proportion as they are in close contact;
   2. The inferior imitates the superior
   3. Law of insertion; as one imitates new idea formed

8. EDWIN H. SUTHERLAND (1883 – 1950).

He is sometimes referred to as the DEAN OF AMERICAN CRIMINOLOGY. Sutherland created a tremendous impact on both sociologists and criminologists because of his THEORY ON DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION. This theory presented 9 statement propositions to validate its claim:

1. 1. Criminal behavior is learned;
   2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with another person in a process of communication;
   3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups;
   4. When criminal behavior is learned, learning includes:
      • • Techniques of committing the crime, which is sometimes very complicated nor simple;
        • The specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes;
   5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable;
   6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law;
   7. A differential association may vary in frequency;
   8. The process of learning behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning;
   9. While criminal behavior is an explanation of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values since non-criminal behavior is an explanation of the same needs and values.

9. DANIEL GLASER

DIFFERENTIAL IDENTIFICATION THEORY or Dan Glaser called it ROLE THEORY. This theory had been derived from the Differential Association Theory of Sutherland.

It was maintained that a person pursues criminal behavior to the extent that he identifies himself with real or imaginary persons from whose perspective his criminal behavior seems acceptable. A person with the propensities of becoming a thief will consider thieves as their ideal person to identify themselves.

10. DIFFERENTIAL SOCIAL ORGANIZATION THEORY.

This is sometimes called Social Disorganization when there is a breakdown, changes, conflict of values between the new and the old, when there is’ reduced influence of the social institution over behavior and when there is declining influence of the solid moral and ethical front. In other words, the degree to which communities promote or inhibit criminal associations varies with the way or the degree to which they are organized (that is, the extent of culture conflict). Differential social organization is the varying ways and degrees to which communities are organized.

11. THORSTEN SELLIN (1896-1994)

CONFLICT OF CULTURE THEORY. It was emphasized in this theory that the multiplicity of conflicting cultures is the principal source of social disorganization. The high crime and delinquency rates of a certain ethnic or racial group are explained by their exposure to diverse and incongruent standards and codes of a larger society.

Sellin argued that crime must be analyzed in terms of conflicts among every person, he said, there is a right and wrong way of acting in specific situations, and these conduct norms are defined by the group to which the individual belongs. In the process of social differentiation, these norms clash with other norms, which he called culture conflict and is an inevitable result of conflict between conduct norms. Sellin distinguished it into:

• • • Primary conflict – refers to a conflict of cultural norms when two different cultures clash;
    • Secondary conflict – occurs within the evolution of single cultures.

In his book Culture Conflict and Crime, he suggested that the root cause of criminality can be found in a clash of values between variously socialized groups over what is acceptable or proper behavior.

12. WALTER C. RECKLESS (1899-1988)

CONTAINMENT THEORY. Accordingly, criminality is brought about by the inability of the group to contain the behavior of its member and that effective containment of the individual into the value system and structure of society will minimize crime.

Containment is better attained when the group is homogenous, isolated, undisturbed by migration and cultural clash. A group of people coming from common ancestry, isolated from outside influence, living in harmony and in cohesion, having a common religion, exercise maximum containment over the behavior of members. Social Control Theory is the answer in CONTAINMENT THEORY because it produces social covenant and social cohesion, thereby SOCIAL BONDING occurs. Without it, SOCIAL CONFLICT may arise.

13. RICHARD CLOWARD and LLOYD OHLIN.

DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY was described by Cloward and Ohlin as socially structured opportunities that can be attained in two ways; illegitimate and legitimate. They observed that legitimate opportunities were generally available to individuals born into middle and upper class, this is being deprived to the lower class that resorts to illegitimate ways.

This is the reason why members of gangs see their acts and criminality as “ALL RIGHT” or legitimate. This theory resembles the Anomie theory of Merton.

---

OTHER CAUSATIVE FACTORS OF CRIME

 1. Need Frustration

The person before committing the crime is likely to feel unhappy, unsatisfied, resentful, or angry about something in particular or about life in general.

2. Internal Inhibition

It refers to all types of internal forces, which may prevent a person from committing a crime.

These forces may be a person’s conscience, or his principles, or his sense of self-respect, or the particular conception he has of himself, or a sense of guilt or remorse that he may experience if he commits certain actions. These forces operate from within the person, without any need for restrains from outside.

3. External Inhibition

This refers to all types of external forces which may prevent an individual from committing a crime.

These forces may be produced by the thought that the person may get caught if he commits the crime, or sentenced to prison for a given number of years, or disgraced in the community, or punished in some other ways.

4. Contact with Reality

This refers to the extent to which a person can learn from his past mistakes, as well as to the extent to which he can evaluate accurately the present situation and foresee the consequence of his present action in relation to his future.

5. Situational Crime Potential

This refers to the actual opportunity to commit the crime, that is to the easiness or possibilities to commit a crime offered by a given place, situation person, or environment.

6. ALCOHOLISM

This is a form of vice causing a physical and mental disturbance.
Causes of Alcoholism:

1. 1. Some people believe that alcohol is an appetizer before taking a meal.
   2. Sometimes alcohol gives them soothing effects.
   3. As a way of escape from the unpleasant realities of life.
   4. Used as a means of escaping personal problems.

7. DRUG ADDICTION

This is another form of vice which causes strong mental disturbance and physical and health deterioration. It is the state of chronic or periodic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of natural or synthetic drugs.

An addict may commit crimes against property to sustain the use of drugs, a woman may become a prostitute to get money for drugs, and they may commit violent crimes or commit suicide during withdrawal symptoms due to extreme suffering.

---

MOST KNOWN CONTRIBUTORY FACTORS OF CRIME CAUSATION

1. LACK OF PARENTAL GUIDANCE

Much of our life is influenced by the types of parents we have. Experiences prove that many parents lack control over their children through ignorance, severity, carelessness, and indifference.

Such children generally get into trouble and statistics show that “today’s delinquent is tomorrow criminal”.

2. BROKEN HOMES AND FAMILY

A family is a homogenous unified and intimate-social group wherein children have their initial experience with others receive protection, normal instruction, and basic physical and emotional satisfaction. It is the energy through which he becomes familiar with his culture that includes’ respect to the rights of others, respect to the property, neighborliness, good sportsmanship, courtesy, and good manners, truthfulness, and reliability.

Frequently, however, homes are very unpleasant places because of drunkenness, quarreling, and nagging. In such cases, there is a tendency to avoid the home and seek pleasure elsewhere. Too often, the pleasure sought or the places where it is sought are criminal or conducive to crime.

Characteristics of Normal Home

1. 1. Physically complete where both natural parents are present.
   2. There is social and religious harmony in the groups.
   3. It must be economically stable to maintain normal health.
   4. Both parents must have the same cultural backgrounds.
   5. There must be physical and psychological normality, there must be functional adequacy.

Basic Needs of Children:

1. 1. Security
   2. Recognition
   3. Status
   4. Companionship

Kinds of Disorganized or Broken Home:

1. 1. Home with a criminal pattern;
   2. Home in which there are unsatisfactory relations because of domination, favoritism, on solicitude, over-severity, neglect, jealousy, stepparent, and interfering relatives.
   3. Home is socially or normally maladjusted because of different races, religions, or immoral situations.
   4. Home in which one parent has a physical or mental disability.
   5. Home under economic pressures like unemployment.

3. INJURING STATUS OF NEIGHBORHOOD.

The residence in a slum or impoverished area will lower the social status of the child (although in some cases NOT AT TIMES). They may adopt a multitude of cultures, beliefs, and norms that may lead to children being prone and vulnerable to criminal attitudes.

A culture of juvenile delinquency along the neighborhood may influence the child well while growing.

4. ASSOCIATION WITH CRIMINAL GROUPS.

The old ages saying “one bad apple will spoil a barrel of good ones” unfortunately holds true, to a great degree among people. So long as children and offspring saw action, manner, misbehavior from people within them they may try to idolized or imitate them.

Much worse is if they get patterned with that action, manner, and misbehavior.

5. LACK OF RECREATIONAL FACILITIES FOR PROPER USE OF LEISURE TIME.

Recreational facilities are especially necessary for the use of youthful energy in a legitimate way. Too often, in those areas where they most needed such things as a park, clubs, and others are missing. The advent of computer shops and café’ get rid also of the sports facilities and activities.

Children get attracted to net games and the likes where sportsmanship is seldom observed and practiced. Physical and personal contacts among players are limited so that actual interactions may not take place. With these after the boredom of gaming and entertainment, they may slip from the opening website that may attract them to sexual deviation and criminal activity.

6. LACK OF EMPLOYMENT AND POVERTY.

Lack of employment gives us too much leisure time; it leads to poverty, loss of self-respect and may further lead to crime. Although however, poverty in itself is no direct cause of crime, it is through it that may set up demands and situations that can be satisfied only by larceny, illegal occupations, and drunkenness.

For an individual with the political will of alleviating his life from poverty, IT IS A CHALLENGE, but for an individual without guts and blames poverty for their misfortune, they use it as scapegoats in committing crimes.

---

OTHER CRIMINOGENIC FACTORS OF CRIMES

(1) FAILURE OF THE SCHOOL IN CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILDREN AND THE YOUTH

The duty of the school in the character development of children is complimentary to home. Second, to the home, the school has close contact with children for a long period of time so that it has a powerful influence on the life of the child and has much to do with the future life and career of children.

Primary Functions of the School

1. 1. To inculcate civic and patriotic responsibility of children.
   2. As an agency of social control over the mores and culture of society.
   3. It furnishes technical competence to children for their future works.
   4. it is a place where initial evidence can be manifested toward criminal behavior.

Relationship Between School and Delinquency or Crimes

1. 1. Among delinquents, there is a high percentage of juveniles with poor school adjustments.
   2. A high percentage of delinquents express dislike for the school in general.
   3. Truancy from school is closely related to delinquency.
   4. There appears to be a higher rate of delinquency during school days than on vacation and weekends.
   5. There is a comparatively high rate of delinquency right after school hours.

(2) THE TEACHING OF RELIGION MAY SOMETIMES BE MISDIRECTED FROM ITS PURPOSES AND OBJECTIVES

The relevance of religion to criminality has always been considered on how much it helps in combating delinquency. This is due mainly to the fact that religions have always supported morality, decency, love of mankind, and above all, love of God. Delinquency and crime, therefore, have not only been seen as wrong in the eyes of the law but likewise in the eyes of God. However, there is little knowledge for each one of us that religion may sometimes serve as the vehicle of crime under these circumstances.

1. 1. 1. When a certain religious group actively participates in partisan political activities.
      2. When the religion tries to inculcate certain distinct inconsonant with the accepted norm of society.
      3. When religion preaches the use of violence in the attainment of its objective.
      4. When somebody becomes “fanatics”.

(3) THE MASS MEDIA MAY DEVELOP AN ARTIFICIAL ENVIRONMENT OF CRIMES AND DELINQUENCY AND INFLUENCE THE PUBLIC TO VIOLATE THE LAW.

There is no doubt that with the perfection of modern technology in mass communication, media, newspaper, radio, motion picture, comic books, television, and social media have been the most effective means of disseminating information to our public in the country today.

Simultaneously, they create public opinion characters and a particular type of society that they may ultimately create on the basis of the artificial environment that media develop in the mind of the people. Media, of course, has always been conceived for the public good but sometimes they may enhance the development of criminal behavior under the following circumstances.

1. 1. 1. It promotes crime by constantly advertising it.
      2. It glorifies criminal leaders and consequently increases their prestige.
      3. It interferes in the administration of justice by trial by media (or trial by publicity) and by giving advance information to the public.
      4. It produces public panic in regard to crime, which makes consistent and sober judicial and preventive procedures difficult.
      5. It frequently advances information to the criminals regarding the place of the police and law enforcers.
      6. It sensationalizes negative images for the police and the government that creates and makes ordinary individual uncooperative and does not participate in the government effort to get rid of the crime.
      7. It teaches man on the technology of crimes to gain advantages over the police, such as those seen in television and movies. From such, the potential criminal may adapt, improve or even hybridize the methods and means of committing crime to make it undetectable.

---

You were now aware of what are “SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS” contributory to crime causation!

ARE YOU NOW FAMILIAR WITH IT? IF YES, TRY OUR QUIZ BELOW TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE MODULE.

GOOD LUCK!

This quiz is for logged in users only.

Username or Email Address

Password

Remember Me