Bio-psychosocial Theories as a Cause of Crimes & Understanding Theories on Women Offenders
EXPLAINING BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES OF CRIME
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CRIMINOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY is a multidisciplinary perspective that attempts to understand criminal behavior (and related outcomes, like antisocial behavior and its consequences) by considering the interactions between biological, psychological, and sociological factors.
The biopsychosocial model was first proposed by George E. Engel (picture below-lower right) and John R. Romano (picture below-upper left) in 1977. As opposed to the biomedical approach, Engel strived for a more complete approach by recognizing that each patient has their own thoughts, feelings, and history; he framed this model for both illnesses and psychological problems.
The biopsychosocial model reflects the development of illness through the complex interaction of biological factors, psychological factors, and social factors. Examples include:
[a] a person may have a genetic predisposition for depression, but they must have social factors, such as extreme stress at work and family life, as well as psychological factors, such as a perfectionistic tendency, to trigger this genetic code for depression;
[b] a person may have a genetic predisposition for a disease, but social and cognitive factors must trigger the illness.
Engel revolutionized medical thinking by reintroducing the idea of mind/body dualism (René Descartes) that was forgotten during the biomedical approach. because of that, Engel and Romano’s publication on the biopsychosocial model was adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2002 as a basis for the International Classification of Function (ICF).
The biopsychosocial model is still widely used as a psychological model. The biological, psychological, and social categories have expanded into bigger categories: specifically, the social aspect has greatly expanded through ideas such as spirituality and culture.
Even if all aspects do not apply to the situation, the biopsychosocial model is widely used to organize one’s thoughts. It shows that a person’s problems are all connected, and they may be more complex than previously imagined.
This medical model was surprisingly presented earlier in 1972 by Juan B. Cortes and Florence M. Gatti (5 years earlier from the work of Engel’s and Romano, 1977) linking all the theories of crime causation into one basket, calling it “BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH”. On the basis of numerous empirical studies, Cortes and Gatti construct a biopsychosocial theory of criminal behavior from which they draw a series of conclusions about methods for the prevention and control of delinquency (although the word biopsychosocial was already used in psychology and in the study of victimology in the 1940s).
The chapters on “empirical criminology” report the results of investigations on the relationships between delinquency, on the one hand, and physique, temperament, need for achievement, intrinsic religiosity, discipline, and affection, on the other.
Comparing samples of delinquents and non-delinquents, Cortes and Gatti argue that the former (delinquents) is higher in mesomorphy, activity, aggressivity, impulsiveness, and need for achievement, and lower in religiousness, parental discipline, and parental affection.
Many of the findings in the book of Cortes and Gatti merely confirm the conclusions of earlier studies. However, given the criticisms of previous research on the relationships between constitutional factors and crime, this additional demonstration of an association between delinquency and body build is valuable.
The authors are cautious in their attempts to interpret this association, pointing out that future work on this problem must concentrate on the biochemical and physiological underpinnings of the basic physical types and criminal behavior in order to deepen our understanding of the causal pathways involved.
While much of the discussion about the effects of family environment on delinquency seems reasonable, the evidence offered is often less than persuasive because of weaknesses in the research design of the various sociological studies during that time.
To give one example, surely the fact that the interviewer was a priest had a differential influence on the responses of non-delinquents who were students at a Catholic school and delinquents who were not attending such a school, particularly with respect to questions about religiosity.
Alternative explanations, indeed, could be given for many of the empirical findings in the writing of Cortes and Gatti. “Theoretical criminology” is the central concern of two chapters in which several sociogenic and psychogenic theories are criticized and in which the authors outline their biopsychosocial theory.
DEFINING BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CRIMINOLOGY
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CRIMINOLOGY is a multidisciplinary perspective that attempts to understand criminal behavior (and related outcomes, like antisocial behavior and its consequences) by considering the interactions between biological (e.g., genetics, hormones, physiology, brain structure/functioning), psychological, and sociological factors.
Just recently, in the United States of America, in 2017, the American Society of Criminology (ASC) BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CRIMINOLOGY as its 13th Division to advance the interests in the said field having four (4) key objectives:
[1] To advance understanding and knowledge amongst criminologists on the interface between social science, psychological science, and biological science in the etiology and treatment of antisocial and criminal behavior.
[2] To bring biological, psychological, and social researchers together to help develop more interdisciplinary research on the intersection of social, psychological, and biological influences on criminal behavior, and to develop new theoretical perspectives on crime.
[3] To facilitate interactions with other groups outside of ASC.
[4] To better promote and organize symposia at ASC on biopsychosocial criminology, and to enhance the intellectual quality of these sessions.
Within the context of Philippine Criminology, this conglomeration of science is still far enough, it becomes part of the curriculum but in reality, criminologist in the Philippines is not heavily engaged in research which this author considers as a failure of the criminology system.
BUT WE NEED NOT WORRY on this. Sooner or later, criminology practitioners through their dynamism will slowly try to shift to truly scientific criminology.
END OF THE TOPIC!
UNDERSTANDING THEORIES ON WOMEN OFFENDERS
This topic is partially discussed in the social conflict theory, the MARXIST, and the RADICAL FEMINISM. Adding flavor to that discussion is the topic and discussion below.
Female has always been seen as a victim rather than perpetrator of crime. Therefore in any criminal justice system, special provisions are framed for the treatment of women. But from the experience of the current scenario prevailing all over the world, the involvement of women and girls in crime commission is startling.
The reasons behind this change may be many but the consequences are posing threat to society. As women are considered to be the foundation of the social structure of any country and if Female Criminality is on the rise then surely the very existence of humanity and moral values in the society is at stake.
Gender is now an established and central topic in criminology and studies of criminal justice (Heidonshen & Silvestri: 1995). It was believed till a few decades ago that crime is predominately a male phenomenon and the world of crime is only a man’s world. This statement is somewhat vague because, in Europe, several published works portray the crime of women (like the book below).
But the statement that the subject of female criminality was totally a neglected phenomenon is probably true because whenever a crime is a discussion it focuses on the crime of males. No attention was paid to research on women’s crime which resulted in a paucity of theoretical materials on crime amongst women (Ahuja, 2000:113).
Historically, criminologists ignored female criminality. The little attention that was given to female offenders usually was limited to three contexts:
(i). the comparison that understood women’s lack of involvement in crime related to men;
(ii). studies of prostitution; and
(iii). analyses of the depravity of violent women, the rational being that since normal women are passive, the few women who do commit a violent crime must be sick (Curran and Ranzetti: 2001).
But, in the contemporary age, female criminality is growing attention towards the readers because of the nature of news published in popular media. The number of crimes committed by females is increased in recent days because of the marginal nature of women, discrimination in family life and workplace environment and complex lifestyles (Islam and Khatun: 2013), and the impact of popular media (Siegel: 2007).
Female Offenders and Crime:
Although violent offenses constitute only a small percentage of all the offenses committed by offenders in any population, females participate in substantially less violent crime than males (see data below, borrowed from a well-developed country) during the course of their criminal careers. The careers of violent females both begin and peak a little earlier than those of males.
Females are far less likely than males to repeat their violent offenses. Females are far more likely to desist from further violence. In brief, long-term involvement in crime and extensive criminal careers are extremely rare within the female offender population.
Feminists believe that all the traditional theories of criminality are rated in men’s experience as criminology has been dominated by males. Feminists hold that women experience subordination on the basis of their sex in patriarchy and this subordination leads to crime. They argue that patriarchy must be ended or at least fundamental changes must be made in gendered institutions and social relations in society.
The goal would be to reduce gender-based disparities and inequalities in society and especially in law. They commit the crime of murder along with an accomplice. However, most are first-time offenders. Crimes committed by women offenders mostly constitute prostitution or sex delinquency, maltreatment or harassment, kidnapping, abduction, murder, theft, etc.
Causes Of Female Criminality:
There are various factors causing female criminality. Most prominent among them are Social, Cultural, Psychological, and Economic factors. Which are discussed below: (Read the causes by clicking “EACH TAB” below.
Socio-Economic Factors:
According to Freda Adler (picture below), there is a strong correlation between the social and economic role of women in society and the concept of Female Criminality. He claims that when the social status of women provides parity with men, their crime patterns and frequency will more seem like those of their male counterparts.
She focused on the association between the startling rise in Female Criminality and the women's liberation movement and new feminism. She described new feminism as a “consciousness-raising” movement and she predicted that, as women drew closer to men socially, they would become more equal on all counts in criminality as well.
Psychological Factors:
According to Cyril Burt, and William Bonger, there is a difference of arguments with respect to the association of Female Criminality with some psychological features. Burt argues that females commit fewer numbers of crimes due to dominant feelings like tenderness, forgiveness, and fear. Bonger suggests that women are far psychologically stronger than men, and thus their participation in crime is far lower than that of men.
According to Bonger, in the post-world War II period, a small proportion of women have participated in economic crimes due to economic deprivation. However, there are also studies arguing that women are far more disconcerting than men and psychological problems are more common in women than in men, and that, due to these reasons, women more commonly feel desperation than men do. The fact that women are more suspicious than men may as well be a factor that might lead to female criminality.
Biological Factors:
According to Lombroso (picture below), women, as required by their nature, are in fact the defenders of the social order, and that harmonization forces them to adopt and to be overwhelmed by the social order. It is also argued that women participate in criminal behavior due to some physical incompatibilities.
For the internal physio-chemical characteristics, the females are more conservative and play a neutral role; consequently, committing less crime than males. Lombroso argues that criminality is principally the product of inconsistent and altered thoughts of women, related to their indirect role in domestic affairs and educational factors.
In some studies, accordingly, women are protected more in societies where the percentage of females in the population is low since their role as mothers and wives is prioritized more highly. On the other hand, in societies where the female population is higher in number, marriage age is low and the fertility rate is high, while the education opportunities for women are extremely limited.
According to Cohen, the reason that women commit fewer crimes than men is that the subculture they belong to is different than that of men. Even when they live in the same village or quarter, the interpretations about the criminality of women and men and the subcultures created by these interpretations are quite different.
The faults of women are less tolerated. The education women receive in
society is more repressive than that received by men. The mentioned education continues to be given in the family, neighborhood, and at school in different intensities. One of the most determinative factors for women creating their own subcultures with regards to Female Criminality is the family. Because of this, most of the recently conducted studies focus on the families of female criminals.
Theories Of Female Criminality:
As said earlier, when we think of a stereotypical criminal, we tend to think of a male. It is unlikely to imagine a female as a criminal. The prison statistics also justified this stereotype thinking. But now the trend is changing and this criminal gap between male and female offenders or convictions is fast closing. See the data of incarceration rate in the United States for the past 104 years.
Therefore the question that arises is whether this rise is due to reporting and conviction policies, or whether women are genuinely starting to commit more crimes. Considering it’s so uncommon for women to commit crime various theories have evolved to answer, why some women become criminals.
There are traditional as well as contemporary theories dealing with the issue of female criminality. Each theory tends to give its explanations of Female Criminality through observations and behavioral study.
Traditional Female Criminological Theories:
Early explanations (the 1890s to early 1950s) of Female Criminality tended to view crime and Human Behaviour in a more general way. Theories surrounding criminality tended to attribute crime to biological or social factors; beyond the control of the individual committing the crime.
For most traditional explanations, women and their criminality were viewed as ancillary, or secondary to that of males. Female Criminality was often explained in simple terms, with simple motivations. The most important among these theories are presented below (just CLICK the tab Lombroso and Pollak below):
Cesare Lombroso
The Born Criminal suggested that biological properties were the determinants of criminal behavior. A reversion to a primitive man, with physical features closely linked to apes, were both indicators of a criminal for Lombroso.
He studied autopsies of criminals and determined certain physical “stigmatic” characteristics to be present: deviation in head size and shape, eye defects and oddities, asymmetry of the face and cranium, ears of unusual size, etc.
This was his evidence to suggest biology as a determinant of crime (see above illustration in his book republished includes several photographs of the atavistic character of female criminals). He viewed female criminals as having excessive male characteristics and as exhibiting masculine biological orientations. He argued that criminal females resembled men (criminal or non-criminal) more closely than non-criminal females.
This old theory suggested that criminals had certain biological characteristics, which manifested in them looking a certain way. According to this theory, female criminals are genetically and biologically disadvantaged, and less evolved than men.
Otto Pollak
Prior to the modern period, Pollak's work is considered to be of importance in the area of explaining Female Criminality. He argued that the types of crime that women commit (i.e. shoplifting, petty theft, abortions, perjury, etc.) are under-represented in statistics for the following reasons: easy, concealment, chivalry in the criminal justice system, under-reporting.
He also suggests that crime rates between men and women are likely quite similar, but for these reasons, Female Criminality appears less prevalent.
Pollak's theory perceived the inherent and deceitful nature of women which he believed to be rooted in the passive role women maintained (i.e. during intercourse, or by hiding her menstruation cycle).
He argued that women were the criminal masterminds; the instigators of crime as opposed to the perpetrators, that they could and would manipulate men into committing offenses to keep their own name clear.
Contemporary Theories of Female Criminality:
Following the feminist movement in the late 1960s, the role of women in society became a more interesting topic and was observed more closely by society. Because of that, a new approach and research take place that resulted in the following five (5) contemporary theories of female crime causation:
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Too many words to memorized, but thanks for additional learnings.
You need NOT memorize it, just understand it….
thank you sir
Thank you, Sir, for this insightful lesson on Bio-psychosocial Theories as a Cause of Crimes and the Understanding of Theories on Women Offenders. This lesson has greatly enhanced my comprehension of these complex topics.
Thank you sir